ORIGIN OF THE PATHANS
ETHNOLOGY:
Different hypotheses have been suggested
about the origin of the Pukhtoons. Khawaja Niamatullah describes them as
descendants of Jews, connecting them with the lost ten tribes of Israel. This
theory of the Semitic origin of the Pukhtoons has been supported by some
Pukhtoon writers, including Hafiz Rahmat Khan, Afzal Khan Khattak and Qazi
Attaullah Khan. A number of orientalists like H.W. Bellew, Sir William Jones and
Major Raverty have also subscribed to this view on the basis of Pukhtoon
physiogonomy, and the striking resemblance of facial features between Pukhtoons
and Jews. They believe that the prevalence of biblical names, certain customs
and superstitions, especially smearing of the door post and walls of the house
with blood of sacrificial animals, further substantiates this theory. But these
presumptions do not hold good in view of the fact that resemblance in features
and certain characteristics do not provide a scientific criterion for the
ethnology of a race or a section of people. This can equally be said about the
Kashmiris and certain other tribes who can hardly be distinguished from
Pukhtoons in physique, colour and complexion. Similarly a scrutiny of the social
institutions of the Arabs of the Middle Ages and present day Pukhtoons would
lead one to believe that Pukhtoons are not different from them in their social
organisation.
Syed Bahadur Shah Zafar Kaka Khel in his well written book
"PUKHTANA" and Sir Olaf Caroe in his book "The Pathans" place little reliance on
Niamatullah's theory of the Semitic origin of the Pukhtoons and say that his
account of the Pukhtoons suffers from historical inaccuracies. To disprove the
assertion that the Pukhtoon tribes had embraced Islam en-bloc after the return
of Qais Abdul Rashid from Medina, the accounts of Al-Beruni and Al-Utbi, the
contemporary historians of Mahmud of Ghazna, establish "that four centuries
later than the time of Qais the Province of Kabul had not been Islamized and
this was achieved under the Ghaznavides. The Hindu Shahiya Kingdom of Jaipal
extended almost to Kabul, Mahmud had to fight against infidel Afghans of the
Sulaiman mountains". Even Prithvi Raj had a cavalry of Afghans in the battle of
Tarian against Mohammad Ghori. Other writers, after a careful examination of the
physical anthropology of the Pukhtoons say that difference in features of the
various Pukhtoons point to the fact that they must have "mingled with races who
passed through their territory to conquer Hindustan".
Khawaja Niamatullah's
theory has further been put to a serious test by prominent linguists who
maintain that Pushto bears no resemblance to Hebrew or other Aramaic languages
and the Pukhtoons' language, Pashto, belongs to the family of the Eastern group
of Iranian languages. Mr. Ahmad Ali Kohzad and some other Afghan historians,
lending support to the Aryan origin of the Pukhtoons, say that the Pakhat of the
Rig Veda are the Pukhtoons of today. It is a fact that the North West Frontier
of Pakistan has, perhaps been involved with more foreign invasions in the course
of history than any other country of Asia. Each horde seems to have left its
mark on the Pukhtoons who absorbed the traits of invading forces, "predominantly
of Turks, Iranians and Mongols".
According to Khawaja Niamatullah the
Pukhtoons embraced Islam in the first quarter of the 7th century when the Holy
Prophet (Peace be upon him) sent his emissaries in all directions to invite the
people to the fold of Islam. One such messenger is stated to have been sent to
Qais Abdur Rashid, who is claimed to be the ancestor of the Pukhtoons, through
Khalid bin Walid. In response to Khalid's invitation, Qais hurried to the Holy
land and as a result of the sublime teachings of the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon
him) embraced Islam in Medina. After his return to Ghore, his whole tribe
followed him in the Muslim faith. But due to weak evidence, missing links and
wide gaps this theory has aroused suspicion in the minds of scholars.
If the
origin of a race can be determined on the basis of customs and traditions then
Pukhtoon would be closer to Arabs. The study of Arabian and Pukhtoon society
presents a remarkable resemblance particularly in their tribal organisation and
social usages. Both possess the same virtues and characteristics. To both
hospitality is one of the finest virtues, retribution a sacred duty and bravery
an essential pre-requisite for an honourable life. Love of independence,
courage, endurance, hospitality and revenge were the supreme virtues of
pre-Islamic Arabs. These very attributes also form the basis of the Pukhtoon
code of honour and anyone who repudiates them is looked down by the society. A
Pukhtoon is nearer to an Arab in his tribal organisation. Like an Arab tent,
every Pukhtoon's house represents a family, an encampment of Arab tents forms a
hay and a cluster of a few houses constitute a village in tribal areas. Members
of one hay form a clan in Arabia and a Khel (which is an Arabic word meaning
association or company) is the basis of the Pukhtoon's tribal organisation. A
number of kindred clans grouped together make a qabila in Arabia and a tribe in
the Pukhtoon borderland. Even the Pashto script resembles the Arabic script in
essence. The Arabs held in great esteem four moral virtues, viz Ziyafah or
hospitality hamasah or fortitude, muruah or manliness and courage and ird or
honour.
The Pathans are brave, courageous, hospitable and generous and these
attributes are considered as pillars of the Pukhtoon code of honour or
Pukhtoonwali. The Pathans like the Arabs also believe in fire and sword for all
their adversaries. This was the reason that they fought tooth and nail against
the non-Muslim rulers of the sub-continent whether Sikhs or Feringi as the
Britishers were called.
The position of a tribal Malik who plays an important
role in tribal politics is similar to that of an Arabian Sheikh. The
qualifications of a tribal Malik, such as seniority in age, qualities of head
and heart and character as courage, wisdom and sagacity etc. are not different
from an Arab Sheikh. Like a Sheikh, a tribal Malik follows the consensus of
opinion. He is required to consult the heads of the families or village council
while making any decision with regard to future relations with a village or
tribe. Darun Nadwa was the centre of activity of the pre-Islamic Arabs and the
Pukhtoons' Hujra is also not different from it in its functions. All matters
relating to war, peace, future relations with neighbouring tribes and day to day
problems used to be discussed in Darun Nadwa. Similarly, all tribal affairs
connected with the tribe are discussed in the Hujra.
Hospitality is one of
the sublime features of the Pukhtoons and pre-Islamic Arabs were also renowned
for their hospitality and for affording asylum to strangers. They would share
the last crumb of their bread with a guest and protect him from all harm so long
as he was under their roof. Similarly, Pukhtoons regard hospitality as a "sacred
duty and safety of the guest as inviolable". It is a serious violation of their
established norms to hurt a man who enters their village as a guest. In the
pre-independence days they provided asylum to all and sundry, including the
proclaimed offenders wanted by the British Government in cases of a criminal
nature in the settled districts. Similarly the Arabs the right of asylum
considered sacred and was rigidly respected regardless of the crime of the
refugee.
The spirit of revenge of the Pukhtoons is not different from that of
the Arabs. Blood according to the law of the desert called for blood and no
chastisement could satisfy an Arab other than wreaking vengeance on his enemy.
Similarly, the hills of the Pukhtoon highlanders vibrate with echoes of
retribution till the insult is avenged. As a matter of fact, the society of both
the Arabs and the Pukhtoons is inspired by a strong feeling of muruwwa, virility
or a quality to defend one's honour (ird). There are several anecdotes of
revenge resulting in long blood feuds for generations. The Basus war between
Banu Bakr and Banu Taghlib in Arabia lasted for about 40 years whereas tribal
disputes between Gar and Samil factions of the Pukhtoons continued for decades.
Pukhtoons like Arabs are conscious of their racial superiority. An Arab would
boast of being a Quraish and a Pukhtoon would assert his superiority by saying,
Am I not a Pukhtoon"?
The customs regarding giving protection to weaker
neighbours is also common between Arabs and Pukhtoons. A weaker tribe in Arabia
would seek the protection of a powerful tribe by means of Khuwah and a weaker
Pukhtoon tribe would ensure its security by offering "Lokhay" to its strong
neighbouring tribe. The custom of "Lokhay Warkawal" is still prevalent among
Afridi and Orakzai tribes of Tirah. A similarity can also be found in their
customs relating to birth, marriage and death etc. Certain superstitions are
also common between the Arabs and the Pukhtoons. Both believe in all kinds of
invisible beings, wear amulets as a safeguard against the evil eye and believe
in sooth sayers and fortune tellers.
Struggle for Freedom
When Sindh and
Multan were conquered by the Muslim army under the inspiring leadership of the
young General Mohammad bin Qasim, in 711 A.D. this part of the South Asian
Sub-Continent was still ruled by a Hindu Shahi dynasty. Subaktagin was the first
Muslim ruler who crossed swords with Jaipal, a powerful ruler of the Hindu Shahi
dynasty in 997. Later, the Muslims under the command of his illustrious son
Mahmud of Ghazna invaded the sub-continent as many as seventeen times and fought
fierce battles against Jaipal, his son Anandpal and other Hindu rulers and Rajas
of Northern India. He was followed by Shahabud Din Mohammad Ghori, Qutb-ud-Din
Aibak and other sultans and finally the great Mughals who ruled the
sub-continent for centuries. Things, however, began to change after the death of
Aurangzeb Alamgir, the last powerful ruler of the Mughal dynasty. The internal
disputes, court intrigues and feuds of rival factions weakened the Mughal
Central Government and the centrifugal tendencies of the Mughal Governors
sounded the death knell of the mighty Mughal Empire.
The way was thus paved
for the rise of Ranjit Singh, who eventually extended his military sway from
Lahore upto the foothills of Khyber in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The Sikh advance was, however, checked by the tribesmen who did not allow them
to encroach upon their independence. The Pukhtoons fought several battles
against them and finally measured their strength of arms with the militant Sikhs
in a battle fought within the environs of Jamrud in 1837. In this pitched battle
the Sikhs sustained heavy casualties. It was here that their famous General Hari
Singh Nalwa, was killed.
Twelve years later the superior and disciplined
forces of the British defeated the Sikhs in successive battles and annexed the
whole of the territory beyond the Indus river and ruled over the North West
Frontier for about a century.
The Pukhtoons resisted violently all attempts
by the British to subjugate or turn them into docile and obedient members of an
enslaved community. They offered stubborn resistance to the British forces and
Inspite of their meager means and resources, the Pukhtoons carried on an
un-ending war against them for the preservation of their liberty. The British,
proud of their glory and might, sent about one hundred expeditions one after the
other against the Pukhtoons to subdue them by force but they did not yield to
the enemy's military might. According to Col. H.C. Wylly 62 military expeditions
were despatched against the tribesmen between 1849-1908, besides every day small
skirmishes. These included the famous Ambela campaign 1863, the Black Mountain
expedition 1868, the Miranzai expedition 1891, the Hassanzai expedition 1894,
the Dir and Chitral expedition 1895, the Tirah campaign 1897, and the
Mahsud-Waziri expeditions 1897. As a result of this aggressive policy the whole
frontier, from Malakand to Waziristan, flared up in revolt against the British
in 1897.
The frontier rising of 1897 engaged about 98000 trained and well
equipped British Indian forces in a grim struggle. According to Col. H.D.
Hutchison, the approximate strength of the Tirah expeditionary force alone was
"1010 British Officers, 10,882 British troops, 491 native officers, 22,123
native troops, 197 hospital Assistants, 179 clerks, 19,558 followers, 8000
horses, 18,384 mules and ponies and 1440 hospital riding ponies". But to these
figures, he says, "must be added an enormous number of camels, carts, ponies etc
working on the long line of communication with Kohat and gradually brought into
use as needs increased and the roads were improved". The British forces suffered
1150 casualties during the Tirah expedition. Similar was the fate of other
expeditions as well. The operations against Mohmand in 1915-16, and Wazirs and
Mahsuds between 1917-1920 and 1936 Waziri campaign also deserves special
mention. In 1917 an arduous campaign was undertaken against the Mahsuds and an
aeroplane was made use of for the first time in Waziristan. In 1936 the dales
and mountains of Waziristan resounded with the echoes of Jehad. The main cause
of the war was the marriage of Islam Bibi (a Hindu Girl of Bannu who was named
Islam Bibi after conversion to Islam) with a Muslim. She was later on returned
to her parents in accordance with the decision of the British law court. The
Government sent over 30,000 well equipped army to curb the activities of the
tribal lashkars in Waziristan but it met with no or little success. "By December
1937", says Authur Swinson, "when the 40,000 British and Indian troops pulled
back on Peshawar, the situation was no better than it had been in January, and
in 1938 more fighting was to ensue." The expenditure on the Frontier war and
"the burden on the Indian tax payer was enormous and between 1924 and 1939 it
totalled 11,2000,000 pounds". But the long range heavy guns and air bombardment
did not dishearten the tribesmen and they continued their intermittent struggle
against an imperialist power till the dawn of Independence. "Throughout the
hundred and odd years of the British rule over the North West Frontier,
Waziristan was always one of the most heavily garrisoned areas anywhere in the
world. Seething with political unrest and ceaseless guerilla warfare, this was
the testing place - the crucible of valour and efficiency for generations of
British soldiers, statesmen and civil servants". The British invariably deputed
their ablest military and civil officers to serve in these areas which had
become the best training ground for the British soldiers. In fact, the British
soldiers had never before experienced such tough and arduous life as on the
Frontier. This is well reflected from a stanza of Mr. Kipling's "Frontier
Arithmetic"
A scrimmage in a Border Station
A center down some dark
defile,
Two thousand pounds of education
Drops to a ten rupee Jezail
As
the freedom movement gained momentum in the Sub-Continent, the tribesmen in
general and the Pukhtoons of NWFP in particular rallied round the dynamic
leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah and under the green banner of
the Muslim League for the establishment of an independent Muslim State. They
resisted the insidious temptations of the Hindu Congress leaders. They gave vent
to their feelings of indignation at the time of Pandat Jawahar Lal Nehru's visit
to Khyber, Malakand and North Waziristan Agencies in autumn of 1946. They staged
violent demonstrations against the visiting Congress dignitary and the then Head
of the Interim Government of India and thereby proved to him their feelings of
love for a Muslim state and un-shakeable confidence in the able leadership of
the Quaid-e-Azam. Their efforts and sacrifices, in common with the rest of the
Mussalmans in the Sub-Continent to carve out a sovereign and independent Islamic
State for themselves were ultimately crowned with success. Pakistan, their
life-long dream, appeared on the map of the world and as dedicated and patriotic
citizens of Pakistan, the tribesmen pledged themselves to stand by the rest of
their brethren in defending its integrity and the solidarity of its
people.
The Pukhtoon's devotion to Pakistan - their homeland, was warmly
appreciated by the Quaid-e-Azam, who as the first Governor General of Pakistan
ordered a complete immediate withdrawal of all troops from tribal areas hitherto
stationed by an alien Government. The so called ferocious warriors turned in no
time into peaceful citizens as if by a magic wand, passionately interested in
their own progress and the well being of Pakistan. The governance of the tribal
belt is no longer a problem for Pakistan; on the contrary the government is
actively associating tribesmen in the progress and prosperity of the country. It
is one of the cherished goals of the Pakistan Government to work for the
socio-economic uplift of the tribesmen who had been deliberately ignored by
alien rulers. A number of public utility schemes aiming at socio-economic,
educational and industrial uplift have already been completed while many more
are being speedily implemented.
The tribal area which was at one time a scene
of wild affrays is now completely peaceful. "At present", says Ian Stephens,
"the irritant of the infidel British regime having withdrawn itself, the
Frontier is remarkably peaceful. During journeys, since the withdrawal, along
the Pakistan side of it, in 1948, 1951 and again this year (1961), I have been
amazed by the change. Within my extensive zone of travel there were no
hostilities, actual or apprehended between the Frontier Corps or the Army or
tribal lashkars, as in former days. Nor did I see the least sign of
Pukhtoonistan activities". A similar opinion has been expressed by Mr. H.C.
Taussig in the `Eastern World'. "There is no doubt" he say "that the situation
has vastly improved, at least in some areas which it was unsafe to travel by day
and impossible by night, I was able to move freely without escort, at any
time".
Appreciating the pace of development in tribal areas in the wake of
peaceful conditions the world famous historian, Professor Arnold J. Toynbee says
"Pakistan does pursue a forward policy on the frontier and a vigorous one, but
its key instruments are not weapons of war, they are dispensaries, schools,
sports, and, above all, economic development. This last instrument is supremely
important, because it gives the tribesmen opportunities for finding alternate
means of livelihood to the raiding which has been their traditional recourse".
The improvement in communications has revolutionized the means of transportation
as well. THE camels and donkeys are gradually being replaced by motorized
conveyances. "In this northern world round Peshawar", says Professor Toynbee,
"times are changing. Not so long ago the traveller through the Khyber Pass had
to pay tribute to the Afridis, or it would be the worse for him. Passing
emperors have defied the Afridis and have lived or sometimes not lived to regret
it. Today we can travel through the pass and back by the Afridi Bus Service and
the tribute has turned into a fare. In old days a tribe used to measure its
strength by the number of its rifles. Today it measures it by the number of its
buses and lorries.
Sources of Income
The Pukhtoons are chiefly employed in
agriculture but their agricultural pursuits are limited owing to the lack of
culturable land. The patches of cultivable land in hilly tracts and some open
valleys do not produce sufficient food-grains to meet their food requirements.
In addition to tilling the available land, tribesmen tend cattle, including
herds of goats and sheep, camels and cows.
If, on the one hand, the tribesmen
were economically dependent on the British, on the other, all kinds of trade in
tribal areas had been monopolized by Hindus and Sikhs. They had opened shops in
the centrally located places and big villages and every tribesman was their
customer. A large number of tribesmen would go to Bombay in search of employment
while others would join the Border Military Police (later called the Frontier
Constabulary) and the army. Certain sections of the tribesmen would sell
firewood and timber to the people of the cities, while others took up some other
petty trade. But among the tribesmen, the Adam Khel Afridis of the Kohat Pass
had a flare for trade. They were traders and carriers of salt at the time of the
advent of the British in the frontier. They used to carry salt from the mines of
Kohat District to Swat, Bajaur and other parts of the NWFP.
They also engaged
themselves in a thriving and lucrative arms trade and later started
manufacturing fire-arms in their factories. Other tribesmen emulated their
example and set up arms factories at Illam Gudar (Khyber Agency), Nawagai
(Bajaur Agency) and Kaniguram (South Waziristan Agency). The Adam Khel Afridis
of the Kohat Pass showed the most extraordinary ingenuity in devising, making
and installing different kinds of indigenous machines for turning out various
component parts of rifles. In the beginning of the 20th century there were about
half a dozen workshops in Darra but later this industry rapidly expanded to
every glen and village. They were also famous gun runners and carried on arms
trade with the Persian Gulf countries. In this way they supplemented the arms
pile of the tribesmen and furnished them with the latest weapons at reasonable
rates. At present the Adam Khel Afridis are producing such fine specimen of
revolvers, pistols and rifles with their crude implements that they can hardly
be distinguished from those of European-make. It can be confidently said that
nowhere in the world has a similar feat been performed by un-educated men with
no training or experience of mass production methods.
The arms manufacturing
industry was the main source of the Afridis' income during the British rule. But
conditions have changed considerably since the creation of Pakistan. The
increased interest of the national Government in the welfare of the tribesmen
and the growing communication and interaction between the tribesmen and the
people of other parts of Pakistan, have revolutionized their socio-economic
life. Soon after Independence the Pakistan Government launched a number of
schemes of public utility in the tribal areas to ameliorate the lot of the
people, provide them with amenities of life, increase employment opportunities
and make them equal partners in progress and prosperity. The Government provided
them with every incentive to take to respectable pursuits. As a result of this
encouragement, the tribesmen took to commerce and soon commercial centres sprang
up at Sakha Kot, Batkhela (Malakand Agency), Yekka Ghund (Mohmand Agency), Bara,
Jamrud and Landi Kotal (Khyber Agency), Parachinar, Sadda (Kurram Agency), Miran
Shah (North Waziristan Agency), Wana (South Waziristan Agency) and Darra Adam
Khel (Frontier Region Kohat) where business transactions of hundreds and
thousands of rupees are made every day.
While millions of rupees were being
spent by the British on the highways to subjugate the tribesmen, nothing
substantial was spent on the improvement of their social condition. But the
Pakistan Government, fully aware of the problems of tribesmen, embarked upon a
programme to combat illiteracy, want, misery and disease. The Quaid-d-Azam took
a keen interest in the development of the tribal areas. Addressing a historic
tribal gathering at Peshawar, the Founder of Pakistan declared "Pakistan wants
to help you and make you as far as it lies in our power, self reliant and self
sufficient and to help your educational, social and economic uplift and not to
be left as you are, depending on annual doles". The Government opened the doors
of employment to tribesmen in all spheres of national life. Quotas were
allocated for the tribal candidates in the services, and a relaxation of three
years was allowed to them in the age limit prescribed for various services. The
Frontier Constabulary and Frontier Corps are now almost mainly manned by
tribesmen and a respectable share of employment has also been given to them in
the regular Armed Forces and other services. This liberal policy has solved
their economic problems to a considerable extent. Nowadays scores of tribesmen
are engaged in business, trade, commerce, Government and private services and
other respectable professions and are serving the country with a spirit of
devotion and dedication. In short the tribesmen from Bajaur to Waziristan, with
their energy and inherent spirit of enterprise, are forging ahead in every
activity of life.